Basic Aircraft Flight

Stall characteristics vary among multiengine airplanes just as they do with single-engine airplanes, and therefore, a pilot must be familiar with them. Yet, the most important stall recovery step in a multiengine airplane is the same as it is in all airplanes: reduce the angle of attack (AOA). For reference, the stall recovery procedure described in in the Maintaining Aircraft Control category is included in Figure 12-19.

It is recommended that stalls be practiced at an altitude that allows recovery no lower than 3,000 feet AGL for multiengine airplanes, or higher if recommended by the AFM/POH. Losing altitude during recovery from a stall is to be expected.

Power-Off Approach to Stall (Approach and Landing)

A power-off approach to stall is trained and checked to simulate problematic approach and landing scenarios. A power-off approach to stall may be performed with wings level, or from shallow and medium banked turns (20 degrees of bank). To initiate a power-off approach to stall maneuver, the area surrounding the airplane should first be cleared for possible traffic. The airplane should then be slowed and configured for an approach and landing. A stabilized descent should be established (approximately 500 fpm) and trim adjusted. A turn should be initiated at this point, if desired. The pilot should then smoothly increase the AOA to induce a stall warning. Power is reduced further during this phase, and trimming should cease at speeds slower than takeoff.

When the airplane reaches the stall warning (e.g., aural alert, buffet, etc.), the recovery is accomplished by first reducing the AOA until the stall warning is eliminated. The pilot then rolls the wings level with coordinated use of the rudder and smoothly applies power as required. The airplane should be accelerated to V_X (if simulated obstacles are present) or V_Y during recovery and climb. Considerable forward elevator/ stabilator pressure will be required after the stall recovery as the airplane accelerates to V_X or V_Y. Appropriate trim input should be anticipated. The flap setting should be reduced from full to approach, or as recommended by the manufacturer. Then, with a positive rate of climb, the landing gear is selected up. The remaining flaps are then retracted as a positive rate-of-climb continues.

Power-On Approach to Stall (Takeoff and Departure)

A power-on approach to stall is trained and checked to simulate problematic takeoff scenarios. A power-on approach to stall may be performed from straight-and-level flight or from shallow and medium banked turns (20 degrees of bank). To initiate a power-on approach to stall maneuver, the area surrounding the airplane should always be cleared to look for potential traffic. The airplane is slowed to the manufacturer’s recommended lift-off speed. The airplane should be configured in the takeoff configuration. Trim should be adjusted for this speed. Engine power is then increased to that recommended in the AFM/POH for the practice of power-on approach to stall. In the absence of a recommended setting, use approximately 65 percent of maximum available power. Begin a turn, if desired, while increasing AOA to induce a stall warning (e.g., aural alert, buffet, etc.). Other specified (reduced) power settings may be used to simulate performance at higher gross weights and density altitudes.

When the airplane reaches the stall warning, the recovery is made first by reducing the AOA until the stall warning is eliminated. The pilot then rolls the wings level with coordinated use of the rudder and applying power as needed. However, if simulating limited power available for high gross weight and density altitude situations, the power during the recovery should be limited to that specified. The landing gear should be retracted when a positive rate of climb is attained, and flaps retracted, if flaps were set for takeoff. The target airspeed on recovery is V_X if (simulated) obstructions are present, or V_Y. The pilot should anticipate the need for nose-down trim as the airplane accelerates to V_X or V_Y after recovery.

Full Stall

It is not recommended that full stalls be practiced unless a qualified flight instructor is present. A power-off or power-on full stall should only be practiced in a structured lesson with clear learning objectives and cautions discussed. The goals of the training are (a) to provide the pilots the experience of the handling characteristics and dynamic cues (e.g., buffet, roll off) near and at full stall and (b) to reinforce the proper application of the stall recovery procedures. Given the associated risk of asymmetric thrust at high angles of attack and low rudder effectiveness due to low airspeeds, this reinforces the primary step of first lowering the AOA, which allows all control surfaces to become more effective and allows for roll to be better controlled. Thrust should only be used as needed in the recovery.

Accelerated Approach to Stall

Accelerated approach to stall should be performed with a bank of approximately 45°, and in no case at a speed greater than the airplane manufacturer’s recommended airspeed or the specified design maneuvering speed (V_A). The entry altitude for this maneuver should be no lower than 5,000 feet AGL.

The entry method for the maneuver is no different than for a single-engine airplane. Once at an appropriate speed, begin increasing the back pressure on the elevator while maintaining a coordinated 45° turn. A good speed reduction rate is approximately 3-5 knots per second. Once a stall warning occurs, recover promptly by reducing the AOA until the stall warning stops. Then roll the wings level with coordinated rudder and add power as necessary to return to the desired flightpath.

Spin Awareness

No multiengine airplane is approved for spins, and their spin recovery characteristics are generally very poor. It is therefore necessary to practice spin avoidance and maintain a high awareness of situations that can result in an inadvertent spin.

In order to spin any airplane, it must first be stalled. At the stall, a yawing moment must be introduced. In a multiengine airplane, the yawing moment may be generated by rudder input or asymmetrical thrust. It follows, then, that spin awareness be at its greatest during V_MC demonstrations, stall practice, slow flight, or any condition of high asymmetrical thrust, particularly at low speed/high AOA. Single-engine stalls are not part of any multiengine training curriculum.

No engine failure should ever be introduced below safe, intentional one-engine inoperative speed (V_SSE). If no V_SSE is published, use V_YSE. Other than training situations, the multiengine airplane is only operated below V_SSE for mere seconds just after lift-off or during the last few dozen feet of altitude in preparation for landing.

For spin avoidance when practicing engine failures, the flight instructor should pay strict attention to the maintenance of proper airspeed and bank angle as the student executes the appropriate procedure. The instructor should also be particularly alert during stall and slow flight practice. Forward center-of-gravity positions result in favorable stall and spin avoidance characteristics, but do not eliminate the hazard.

When performing a V_MC demonstration, the instructor should also be alert for any sign of an impending stall. The student may be highly focused on the directional control aspect of the maneuver to the extent that impending stall indications go unnoticed. If a V_MC demonstration cannot be accomplished under existing conditions of density altitude, it may, for training purposes, be done utilizing the rudder blocking technique described in the following section.

As very few twins have ever been spin-tested (none are required to), the recommended spin recovery techniques are based only on the best information available. The departure from controlled flight may be quite abrupt and possibly disorienting. The direction of an upright spin can be confirmed from the turn needle or the symbolic airplane of the turn coordinator, if necessary. Do not rely on the ball position or other instruments.

If a spin is entered, most manufacturers recommend immediately retarding both throttles to idle, applying full rudder opposite the direction of rotation, and applying full forward elevator/stabilator pressure (with ailerons neutral). These actions should be taken as near simultaneously as possible. The controls should then be held in that position until the spin has stopped. At that point adjust rudder pressure, back elevator pressure, and power as necessary to return to the desired flight path. Pilots should be aware that a spin recovery will take considerable altitude therefore it is critical that corrective action be taken immediately.

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Best single-engine climb performance is obtained at V_YSE with maximum available power and minimum drag. After the flaps and landing gear have been retracted and the propeller of the failed engine feathered, a key element in best climb performance is minimizing sideslip.

With a single-engine airplane or a multiengine airplane with both engines operative, sideslip is eliminated when the ball of the turn and bank instrument is centered. This is a condition of zero sideslip, and the airplane is presenting its smallest possible profile to the relative wind. As a result, drag is at its minimum. Pilots know this as coordinated flight.

In a multiengine airplane with an inoperative engine, the centered ball is no longer the indicator of zero sideslip due to asymmetrical thrust. In fact, there is no instrument at all that directly tells the pilot the flight conditions for zero sideslip. In the absence of a yaw string, minimizing sideslip is a matter of placing the airplane at a predetermined bank angle and ball position. The AFM/POH performance charts for single-engine flight were determined at zero sideslip. If this performance is even to be approximated, the zero sideslip technique must be utilized.

There are two different control inputs that can be used to counteract the asymmetrical thrust of a failed engine:

1. Yaw from the rudder
2. The horizontal component of lift that results from bank with the ailerons.

Used individually, neither is correct. Used together in the proper combination, zero sideslip and best climb performance are achieved.

Three different scenarios of airplane control inputs are presented below. Neither of the first two is correct. They are presented to illustrate the reasons for the zero sideslip approach to best climb performance.

1. Engine inoperative flight with wings level and ball centered requires large rudder input towards the operative engine. [Figure 12-16] The result is a moderate sideslip towards the inoperative engine. Climb performance is reduced by the moderate sideslip. With wings level, V_MC is significantly higher than published as there is no horizontal component of lift available to help the rudder combat asymmetrical thrust.
2. Engine inoperative flight using ailerons alone requires an 8–10° bank angle towards the operative engine. [Figure 12-17] This assumes no rudder input. The ball is displaced well towards the operative engine. The result is a large sideslip towards the operative engine. Climb performance is greatly reduced by the large sideslip.
3. Rudder and ailerons used together in the proper combination result in a bank of approximately 2° towards the operative engine. The ball is displaced approximately one-third to one-half towards the operative engine. The result is zero sideslip and maximum climb performance. [Figure 12-18] Any attitude other than zero sideslip increases drag, decreasing performance. VMC under these circumstances is higher than published, as less than the 5° bank certification limit is employed.

The precise condition of zero sideslip (bank angle and ball position) varies slightly from model to model and with available power and airspeed. If the airplane is not equipped with counter-rotating propellers, it also varies slightly with the engine failed due to P-factor. The foregoing zero sideslip recommendations apply to reciprocating engine multiengine airplanes flown at VYSE with the inoperative engine feathered. The zero sideslip ball position for straight flight is also the zero sideslip position for turning flight.

When bank angle is plotted against climb performance for a hypothetical twin, zero sideslip results in the best (however marginal) climb performance or the least rate of descent. Zero bank (all rudder to counteract yaw) degrades climb performance as a result of moderate sideslip. Using bank angle alone (no rudder) severely degrades climb performance as a result of a large sideslip.

The actual bank angle for zero sideslip varies among airplanes from one and one-half to two and one-half degrees. The position of the ball varies from one-third to one-half of a ball width from instrument center.

For any multiengine airplane, zero sideslip can be confirmed through the use of a yaw string. A yaw string is a piece of string or yarn approximately 18 to 36 inches in length taped to the base of the windshield or to the nose near the windshield along the airplane centerline. In two-engine coordinated flight, the relative wind causes the string to align itself with the longitudinal axis of the airplane, and it positions itself straight up the center of the windshield. This is zero sideslip. Experimentation with slips and skids vividly displays the location of the relative wind. Adequate altitude and flying speed must be maintained while accomplishing these maneuvers.

With an engine set to zero thrust (or feathered) and the airplane slowed to V_YSE, a climb with maximum power on the remaining engine reveals the precise bank angle and ball deflection required for zero sideslip and best climb performance. Zero sideslip is again indicated by the yaw string when it aligns itself vertically on the windshield. There are very minor changes from this attitude depending upon the engine failed (with non-counter-rotating propellers), power available, airspeed and weight; but without more sensitive testing equipment, these changes are difficult to detect. The only significant difference would be the pitch attitude required to maintain V_YSE under different density altitude, power available, and weight conditions.

If a yaw string is attached to the airplane at the time of a V_MC demonstration, it is noted that V_MC occurs under conditions of sideslip. V_MC was not determined under conditions of zero sideslip during aircraft certification and zero sideslip is not part of a V_MC demonstration for pilot certification.

To review, there are two different sets of bank angles used in OEI flight.

1. To maintain directional control of a multiengine airplane suffering an engine failure at low speeds (such as climb), momentarily bank at least 5° and a maximum of 10° towards the operative engine as the pitch attitude for V_YSE is set. This maneuver should be instinctive to the proficient multiengine pilot and take only 1 to 2 seconds to attain. It is held just long enough to assure directional control as the pitch attitude for V_YSE is assumed.
2. To obtain the best climb performance, the airplane must be flown at V_YSE and zero sideslip with the failed engine feathered and maximum available power from the operating engine. Zero sideslip is approximately 2° of bank toward the operating engine and a one-third to one-half ball deflection also toward the operating engine. The precise bank angle and ball position varies somewhat with make and model and power available. If above the airplane’s single-engine ceiling, this attitude and configuration results in the minimum rate of sink.

In OEI flight at low altitudes and airspeeds such as the initial climb after takeoff, pilots must operate the airplane so as to guard against the three major accident factors: (1) loss of directional control, (2) loss of performance, and (3) loss of flying speed. All have equal potential to be lethal. Loss of flying speed is not a factor, however, when the airplane is operated with due regard for directional control and performance.

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The approach and landing with OEI is essentially the same as a two-engine approach and landing. The traffic pattern should be flown at similar altitudes, airspeeds, and key positions as a two-engine approach. The differences are the reduced power available and the fact that the remaining thrust is asymmetrical. A higher-than-normal power setting is necessary on the operative engine.

With adequate airspeed and performance, the landing gear can still be extended on the downwind leg. In which case it should be confirmed DOWN no later than abeam the intended point of landing. Performance permitting, initial extension of wing flaps (typically 10°) and a descent from pattern altitude can also be initiated on the downwind leg. The airspeed should be no slower than V_YSE. The direction of the traffic pattern, and therefore the turns, is of no consequence as far as airplane controllability and performance are concerned. It is perfectly acceptable to make turns toward the failed engine.

On the base leg, if performance is adequate, the flaps may be extended to an intermediate setting (typically 25°). If the performance is inadequate, as measured by decay in airspeed or high sink rate, delay further flap extension until closer to the runway. V_YSE is still the minimum airspeed to maintain.

On final approach, a normal, 3° glidepath to a landing is desirable. Visual approach slope indicator (VASI) or other vertical path lighting aids should be utilized if available. Slightly steeper approaches may be acceptable. However, a long, flat, low approach should be avoided. Large, sudden power applications or reductions should also be avoided. Maintain V_YSE until the landing is assured, then slow to 1.3 VSO or the AFM/POH recommended speed. The final flap setting may be delayed until the landing is assured or the airplane may be landed with partial flaps.

The airplane should remain in trim throughout. The pilot must be prepared, however, for a rudder trim change as the power of the operating engine is reduced to idle in the round out just prior to touchdown. With drag from only one windmilling propeller, the airplane tends to float more than on a two-engine approach. Precise airspeed control therefore is essential, especially when landing on a short, wet, and/or slippery surface.

Some pilots favor resetting the rudder trim to neutral on final and compensating for yaw by holding rudder pressure for the remainder of the approach. This eliminates the rudder trim change close to the ground as the throttle is closed during the round out for landing. This technique eliminates the need for groping for the rudder trim and manipulating it to neutral during final approach, which many pilots find to be highly distracting. AFM/POH recommendations or personal preference should be used.

A single-engine go-around must be avoided. As a practical matter in single-engine approaches, once the airplane is on final approach with landing gear and flaps extended, it is committed to land on the intended runway, on another runway, a taxiway, or grassy infield. The light-twin does not have the performance to climb on one engine with landing gear and flaps extended. Considerable altitude is lost while maintaining V_YSE and retracting landing gear and flaps. Losses of 500 feet or more are not unusual. If the landing gear has been lowered with an alternate means of extension, retraction may not be possible, virtually negating any climb capability.

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Engine failures well above the ground are handled differently than those occurring at lower speeds and altitudes. Cruise airspeed allows better airplane control and altitude, which may permit time for a possible diagnosis and remedy of the failure. Maintaining airplane control, however, is still paramount. Airplanes have been lost at altitude due to apparent fixation on the engine problem to the detriment of flying the airplane.

Not all engine failures or malfunctions are catastrophic in nature (catastrophic meaning a major mechanical failure that damages the engine and precludes further engine operation). Many cases of power loss are related to fuel starvation, where restoration of power may be made with the selection of another tank. An orderly inventory of gauges and switches may reveal the problem. Carburetor heat or alternate air can be selected. The affected engine may run smoothly on just one magneto or at a lower power setting. Altering the mixture may help. If fuel vapor formation is suspected, fuel boost pump operation may be used to eliminate flow and pressure fluctuations.

Although it is a natural desire among pilots to save an ailing engine with a precautionary shutdown, the engine should be left running if there is any doubt as to needing it for further safe flight. Catastrophic failure accompanied by heavy vibration, smoke, blistering paint, or large trails of oil, on the other hand, indicate a critical situation. The affected engine should be feathered and the Securing Failed Engine checklist completed. The pilot should divert to the nearest suitable airport and declare an emergency with ATC for priority handling.

Fuel crossfeed is a method of getting fuel from a tank on one side of the airplane to an operating engine on the other. Crossfeed is used for extended single-engine operation. If a suitable airport is close at hand, there is no need to consider crossfeed. If prolonged flight on a single-engine is inevitable due to airport non-availability, then crossfeed allows use of fuel that would otherwise be unavailable to the operating engine. It also permits the pilot to balance the fuel consumption to avoid an out-of-balance wing heaviness.

The AFM/POH procedures for crossfeed vary widely. Thorough fuel system knowledge is essential if crossfeed is to be conducted. Fuel selector positions and fuel boost pump usage for crossfeed differ greatly among multiengine airplanes. Prior to landing, crossfeed should be terminated and the operating engine returned to its main tank fuel supply.

If the airplane is above its single-engine absolute ceiling at the time of engine failure, it slowly loses altitude. The pilot should maintain V_YSE to minimize the rate of altitude loss. This “drift down” rate is greatest immediately following the failure and decreases as the single-engine ceiling is approached. Due to performance variations caused by engine and propeller wear, turbulence, and pilot technique, the airplane may not maintain altitude even at its published single-engine ceiling. Any further rate of sink, however, would likely be modest.

An engine failure in a descent or other low power setting can be deceiving. The dramatic yaw and performance loss is absent. At very low power settings, the pilot may not even be aware of a failure. If a failure is suspected, the pilot should advance both engine mixtures, propellers, and throttles significantly, to the takeoff settings if necessary, to correctly identify the failed engine. The power on the operative engine can always be reduced later.

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A takeoff or go-around is the most critical time to suffer an engine failure. The airplane will be slow, close to the ground, and may even have landing gear and flaps extended. Altitude and time is minimal. Until feathered, the propeller of the failed engine is windmilling, producing a great deal of drag and yawing tendency. Airplane climb performance is marginal or even non-existent, and obstructions may lie ahead. An emergency contingency plan and safety brief should be clearly understood well before the takeoff roll commences. An engine failure before a predetermined airspeed or point results in an aborted takeoff. An engine failure after a certain airspeed and point, with the gear up, and climb performance assured result in a continued takeoff. With loss of an engine, it is paramount to maintain airplane control and comply with the manufacturer’s recommended emergency procedures. Complete failure of one engine shortly after takeoff can be broadly categorized into one of three following scenarios.

Landing Gear Down

If the engine failure occurs prior to selecting the landing gear to the UP position [Figure 12-11]: Keep the nose as straight as possible, close both throttles, allow the nose to maintain airspeed and descend to the runway. Concentrate on a normal landing and do not force the aircraft on the ground. Land on the remaining runway or overrun. Depending upon how quickly the pilot reacts to the sudden yaw, the airplane may run off the side of the runway by the time action is taken. There are really no other practical options. As discussed earlier, the chances of maintaining directional control while retracting the flaps (if extended), landing gear, feathering the propeller, and accelerating are minimal. On some airplanes with a single-engine-driven hydraulic pump, failure of that engine means the only way to raise the landing gear is to allow the engine to windmill or to use a hand pump. This is not a viable alternative during takeoff.

Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single-Engine Climb Performance Inadequate

When operating near or above the single-engine ceiling and an engine failure is experienced shortly after lift-off, a landing must be accomplished on whatever essentially lies ahead. [Figure 12-12] There is also the option of continuing ahead, in a descent at V_YSE with the remaining engine producing power, as long as the pilot is not tempted to remain airborne beyond the airplane’s performance capability. Remaining airborne and bleeding off airspeed in a futile attempt to maintain altitude is almost invariably fatal. Landing under control is paramount. The greatest hazard in a single-engine takeoff is attempting to fly when it is not within the performance capability of the airplane to do so. An accident is inevitable.

As mentioned previously, if the airplane’s landing gear retraction mechanism is dependent upon hydraulic pressure from a certain engine-driven pump, failure of that engine can mean a loss of hundreds of feet of altitude as the pilot either windmills the engine to provide hydraulic pressure to raise the gear or raises it manually with a backup pump.

Landing Gear Control Selected Up, Single-Engine Climb Performance Adequate

If the single-engine rate of climb is adequate, the procedures for continued flight should be followed. [Figure 12-13] There are four areas of concern: control, configuration, climb, and checklist.

The first consideration following engine failure during takeoff is to maintain control of the airplane. Maintaining directional control with prompt and often aggressive rudder application and STOPPING THE YAW is critical to the safety of flight. Ensure that airspeed stays above V_MC. If the yaw cannot be controlled with full rudder applied, reducing thrust on the operative engine is the only alternative. Attempting to correct the roll with aileron without first applying rudder increases drag and adverse yaw and further degrades directional control. After rudder is applied to stop the yaw, a slight amount of aileron should be used to bank the airplane toward the operative engine. This is the most efficient way to control the aircraft, minimize drag, and gain the most performance. Control forces, particularly on the rudder, may be high. The pitch attitude for V_YSE has to be lowered from that of V_Y. At least 5° of bank should be used initially to stop the yaw and maintain directional control. This initial bank input is held only momentarily, just long enough to establish or ensure directional control. Climb performance suffers when bank angles exceed approximately 2 or 3°, but obtaining and maintaining V_YSE and directional control are paramount. Trim should be adjusted to lower the control forces.

Configuration

The memory items from the Engine Failure After Takeoff checklist should be promptly executed to configure the airplane for climb. [Figure 12-14] The specific procedures to follow are found in the AFM/POH and checklist for the particular airplane. Most direct the pilot to assume V_YSE, set takeoff power, retract the flaps and landing gear, identify, verify, and feather the failed engine. (On some airplanes, the landing gear is to be retracted before the flaps.)

The “identify” step is for the pilot to initially identify the failed engine. Confirmation on the engine gauges may or may not be possible, depending upon the failure mode. Identification should be primarily through the control inputs required to maintain straight flight, not the engine gauges. The “verify” step directs the pilot to retard the throttle of the engine thought to have failed. No change in performance when the suspected throttle is retarded is verification that the correct engine has been identified as failed. The corresponding propeller control should be brought fully aft to feather the engine.

Climb

As soon as directional control is established and the airplane configured for climb, the bank angle should be reduced to that producing best climb performance. Without specific guidance for zero sideslip, a bank of 2° and one-third to one-half ball deflection on the slip/skid indicator is suggested. V_YSE is maintained with pitch control. As turning flight reduces climb performance, climb should be made straight ahead or with shallow turns to avoid obstacles to an altitude of at least 400 feet AGL before attempting a return to the airport.

Checklist

Having accomplished the memory items from the Engine Failure After Takeoff checklist, the printed copy should be reviewed as time permits. The Securing Failed Engine checklist should then be accomplished. [Figure 12-15] Unless the pilot suspects an engine fire, the remaining items should be accomplished deliberately and without undue haste. Airplane control should never be sacrificed to execute the remaining checklists. The priority items have already been accomplished from memory.

Other than closing the cowl flap of the failed engine, none of these items, if left undone, adversely affects airplane climb performance. There is a distinct possibility of actuating an incorrect switch or control if the procedure is rushed. The pilot should concentrate on flying the airplane and extracting maximum performance. If an ATC facility is available, an emergency should be declared.

The memory items in the Engine Failure After Takeoff checklist may be redundant with the airplane’s existing configuration. For example, in the third takeoff scenario, the gear and flaps were assumed to already be retracted, yet the memory items included gear and flaps. This is not an oversight. The purpose of the memory items is to either initiate the appropriate action or to confirm that a condition exists. Action on each item may not be required in all cases. The memory items also apply to more than one circumstance. In an engine failure from a go-around, for example, the landing gear and flaps would likely be extended when the failure occurred.

The three preceding takeoff scenarios all include the landing gear as a key element in the decision to land or continue. With the landing gear selector in the DOWN position, for example, continued takeoff and climb is not recommended. This situation, however, is not justification to retract the landing gear the moment the airplane lifts off the surface on takeoff as a normal procedure. The landing gear should remain selected down as long as there is usable runway or overrun available to land on. The use of wing flaps for takeoff virtually eliminates the likelihood of a single-engine climb until the flaps are retracted.

There are two time-tested memory aids the pilot may find useful in dealing with engine-out scenarios. The first, “dead foot—dead engine” is used to assist in identifying the failed engine. Depending on the failure mode, the pilot will not be able to consistently identify the failed engine in a timely manner from the engine gauges. In maintaining directional control, however, rudder pressure is exerted on the side (left or right) of the airplane with the operating engine. Thus, the “dead foot” is on the same side as the “dead engine.” Variations on this saying include “idle foot—idle engine” and “working foot–working engine.”

The second memory aid has to do with climb performance. The phrase “raise the dead” is a reminder that the best climb performance is obtained with a very shallow bank, about 2° toward the operating engine. Therefore, the inoperative, or “dead” engine should be “raised” with a very slight bank.

Not all engine power losses are complete failures. Sometimes the failure mode is such that partial power may be available. If there is a performance loss when the throttle of the affected engine is retarded, the pilot should consider allowing it to run until altitude and airspeed permit safe single-engine flight, if this can be done without compromising safety. Attempts to save a malfunctioning engine can lead to a loss of the entire airplane.

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When the decision to go around is made, the throttles should be advanced to takeoff power. With adequate airspeed, the airplane should be placed in a climb pitch attitude. These actions, which are accomplished simultaneously, arrest the sink rate and place the airplane in the proper attitude for transition to a climb. The initial target airspeed is V_Y or V_X if obstructions are present. With sufficient airspeed, the flaps should be retracted from full to an intermediate position and the landing gear retracted when there is a positive rate of climb and no chance of runway contact. The remaining flaps should then be retracted. [Figure 12-10]

If the airplane was in trim for the landing approach when the go-around was commenced, it soon requires a great deal of forward elevator/stabilator pressure as the airplane accelerates away in a climb. The pilot should apply appropriate forward pressure to maintain the desired pitch attitude. Trim should be commenced immediately. The Balked Landing checklist should be reviewed as work load permits.

Flaps should be retracted before the landing gear for two reasons. First, on most airplanes, full flaps produce more drag than the extended landing gear. Secondly, the airplane tends to settle somewhat with flap retraction, and the landing gear should be down in the event of an inadvertent, momentary touchdown.

Many multiengine airplanes have a landing gear retraction speed significantly less than the extension speed. Care should be exercised during the go-around not to exceed the retraction speed. If the pilot desires to return for a landing, it is essential to re-accomplish the entire Before Landing checklist. An interruption to a pilot’s habit patterns, such as a go-around, is a classic scenario for a subsequent gear up landing.

The preceding discussion about doing a go-around assumes that the maneuver was initiated from normal approach speeds or faster. If the go-around was initiated from a low airspeed, the initial pitch up to a climb attitude must be tempered with the necessity of maintaining adequate flying speed throughout the maneuver. Examples of where this applies include a go-around initiated from the landing round out or recovery from a bad bounce, as well as a go-around initiated due to an inadvertent approach to a stall. The first priority is always to maintain control and obtain adequate flying speed. A few moments of level or near level flight may be required as the airplane accelerates up to climb speed.

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Short-Field Takeoff and Climb

The short-field takeoff and climb differs from the normal takeoff and climb in the airspeeds and initial climb profile. Some AFM/POHs give separate short-field takeoff procedures and performance charts that recommend specific flap settings and airspeeds. Other AFM/POHs do not provide separate short-field procedures. In the absence of such specific procedures, the airplane should be operated only as recommended in the AFM/POH. No operations should be conducted contrary to the recommendations in the AFM/POH. On short-field takeoffs in general, just after rotation and lift-off, the airplane should be allowed to accelerate to V_X, making the initial climb over obstacles at V_X and transitioning to V_Y as obstacles are cleared. [Figure 12-9]

Engine failure on takeoff, particularly with obstructions, is compounded by the low airspeeds and steep climb attitudes utilized in short-field takeoffs. V_X and V_XSE are often perilously close to V_MC, leaving scant margin for error in the event of engine failure as V_XSE is assumed. If flaps were used for takeoff, the engine failure situation becomes even more critical due to the additional drag incurred. If V_X is less than 5 knots higher than V_MC, give strong consideration to reducing useful load or using another runway in order to increase the takeoff margins so that a short-field technique is not required.

Short-Field Approach and Landing

The primary elements of a short-field approach and landing do not differ significantly from a normal approach and landing. Many manufacturers do not publish short-field landing techniques or performance charts in the AFM/POH. In the absence of specific short-field approach and landing procedures, the airplane should be operated as recommended in the AFM/POH. No operations should be conducted contrary to the AFM/POH recommendations.

The emphasis in a short-field approach is on configuration (full flaps), a stabilized approach with a constant angle of descent, and precise airspeed control. As part of a short field approach and landing procedure, some AFM/POHs recommend a slightly slower than normal approach airspeed. If no such slower speed is published, use the AFM/POHrecommended normal approach speed.

Full flaps are used to provide the steepest approach angle. If obstacles are present, the approach should be planned so that no drastic power reductions are required after they are cleared. The power should be smoothly reduced to idle in the round out prior to touchdown. Pilots should keep in mind that the propeller blast blows over the wings providing some lift in addition to thrust. Reducing power significantly, just after obstacle clearance, usually results in a sudden, high sink rate that may lead to a hard landing. After the shortfield touchdown, maximum stopping effort is achieved by retracting the wing flaps, adding back pressure to the elevator/ stabilator, and applying heavy braking. However, if the runway length permits, the wing flaps should be left in the extended position until the airplane has been stopped clear of the runway. There is always a significant risk of retracting the landing gear instead of the wing flaps when flap retraction is attempted on the landing rollout.

Landing conditions that involve a short-field, high-winds, or strong crosswinds are just about the only situations where flap retraction on the landing rollout should be considered. When there is an operational need to retract the flaps just after touchdown, it must be done deliberately with the flap handle positively identified before it is moved.

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The multiengine airplane is often easier to land in a crosswind than a single-engine airplane due to its higher approach and landing speed. In any event, the principles are no different between singles and twins. Prior to touchdown, the longitudinal axis must be aligned with the runway centerline to avoid landing gear side loads.

The two primary methods, crab and wing-low, are typically used in conjunction with each other. As soon as the airplane rolls out onto final approach, the crab angle to track the extended runway centerline is established. This is coordinated flight with adjustments to heading to compensate for wind drift either left or right. Prior to touchdown, the transition to a side-slip is made with the upwind wing lowered and opposite rudder applied to prevent a turn. The airplane touches down on the landing gear of the upwind wing first, followed by that of the downwind wing, and then the nose gear. Follow-through with the flight controls involves an increasing application of aileron into the wind until full control deflection is reached.

The point at which the transition from the crab to the sideslip is made is dependent upon pilot familiarity with the airplane and experience. With high skill and experience levels, the transition can be made during the round out just before touchdown. With lesser skill and experience levels, the transition is made at increasing distances from the runway. Some multiengine airplanes (as some single-engine airplanes) have AFM/POH limitations against slips in excess of a certain time period; 30 seconds, for example. This is to prevent engine power loss from fuel starvation as the fuel in the tank of the lowered wing flows towards the wingtip, away from the fuel pickup point. This time limit must be observed if the wing-low method is utilized.

Some multiengine pilots prefer to use differential power to assist in crosswind landings. The asymmetrical thrust produces a yawing moment little different from that produced by the rudder. When the upwind wing is lowered, power on the upwind engine is increased to prevent the airplane from turning. This alternate technique is completely acceptable, but most pilots feel they can react to changing wind conditions quicker with rudder and aileron than throttle movement. This is especially true with turbocharged engines where the throttle response may lag momentarily. The differential power technique should be practiced with an instructor before being attempted alone.

Given the higher cruising speed (and frequently altitude) of multiengine airplanes over most single-engine airplanes, the descent must be planned in advance. A hurried, last minute descent with power at or near idle is inefficient and can cause excessive engine cooling. It may also lead to passenger discomfort, particularly if the airplane is unpressurized. As a rule of thumb, if terrain and passenger conditions permit, a maximum of a 500 fpm rate of descent should be planned. Pressurized airplanes can plan for higher descent rates, if desired.

In a descent, some airplanes require a minimum EGT or may have a minimum power setting or cylinder head temperature to observe. In any case, combinations of very low manifold pressure and high rpm settings are strongly discouraged by engine manufacturers. If higher descent rates are necessary, the pilot should consider extending partial flaps or lowering the landing gear before retarding the power excessively. The Descent checklist should be initiated upon leaving cruising altitude and completed before arrival in the terminal area. Upon arrival in the terminal area, pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing and recognition lights when operating below 10,000 feet, day or night, and especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport or in conditions of reduced visibility.

The traffic pattern and approach are typically flown at somewhat higher indicated airspeeds in a multiengine airplane contrasted to most single-engine airplanes. The pilot may allow for this through an early start on the Before Landing checklist. This provides time for proper planning, spacing, and thinking well ahead of the airplane. Many multiengine airplanes have partial flap extension speeds above V_FE, and partial flaps can be deployed prior to traffic pattern entry. Normally, the landing gear should be selected and confirmed down when abeam the intended point of landing as the downwind leg is flown. [Figure 12-8]

The final approach should be made with power and at a speed recommended by the manufacturer; if a recommended speed is not furnished, the speed should be no slower than the single-engine best rate-of-climb speed (V_YSE) until short final with the landing assured, but in no case less than critical engine-out minimum control speed (V_MC). Some multiengine pilots prefer to delay full flap extension to short final with the landing assured. This is an acceptable technique with appropriate experience and familiarity with the airplane.

In the round out for landing, residual power is gradually reduced to idle. With the higher wing loading of multiengine airplanes and with the drag from two windmilling propellers, there is minimal float. Full stall landings are generally undesirable in twins. The airplane should be held off as with a high performance single-engine model, allowing touchdown of the main wheels prior to a full stall.

Under favorable wind and runway conditions, the nosewheel can be held off for best aerodynamic braking. Even as the nosewheel is gently lowered to the runway centerline, continued elevator back pressure greatly assists the wheel brakes in stopping the airplane.

If runway length is critical, or with a strong crosswind, or if the surface is contaminated with water, ice or snow, it is undesirable to rely solely on aerodynamic braking after touchdown. The full weight of the airplane should be placed on the wheels as soon as practicable. The wheel brakes are more effective than aerodynamic braking alone in decelerating the airplane.

Once on the ground, elevator back pressure should be used to place additional weight on the main wheels and to add additional drag. When necessary, wing flap retraction also adds additional weight to the wheels and improves braking effectivity. Flap retraction during the landing rollout is discouraged, however, unless there is a clear, operational need. It should not be accomplished as routine with each landing.

Some multiengine airplanes, particularly those of the cabin class variety, can be flown through the round out and touchdown with a small amount of power. This is an acceptable technique to prevent high sink rates and to cushion the touchdown. The pilot should keep in mind, however, that the primary purpose in landing is to get the airplane down and stopped. This technique should only be attempted when there is a generous margin of runway length. As propeller blast flows directly over the wings, lift as well as thrust is produced. The pilot should taxi clear of the runway as soon as speed and safety permit, and then accomplish the After Landing checklist. Ordinarily, no attempt should be made to retract the wing flaps or perform other checklist duties until the airplane has been brought to a halt when clear of the active runway. Exceptions to this would be the rare operational needs discussed above, to relieve the weight from the wings and place it on the wheels. In these cases, AFM/POH guidance should be followed. The pilot should not indiscriminately reach out for any switch or control on landing rollout. An inadvertent landing gear retraction while meaning to retract the wing flaps may result.

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Upon leveling off at cruising altitude, the pilot should allow the airplane to accelerate at climb power until cruising airspeed is achieved, and then cruise power and rpm should be set. To extract the maximum cruise performance from any airplane, the power setting tables provided by the manufacturer should be closely followed. If the cylinder head and oil temperatures are within their normal ranges, the cowl flaps may be closed. When the engine temperatures have stabilized, the mixtures may be leaned per AFM/POH recommendations. The remainder of the Cruise checklist should be completed by this point.

Fuel management in multiengine airplanes is often more complex than in single-engine airplanes. Depending upon system design, the pilot may need to select between main tanks and auxiliary tanks or even employ fuel transfer from one tank to another. In complex fuel systems, limitations are often found restricting the use of some tanks to level flight only or requiring a reserve of fuel in the main tanks for descent and landing. Electric fuel pump operation can vary widely among different models also, particularly during tank switching or fuel transfer. Some fuel pumps are to be on for takeoff and landing; others are to be off. There is simply no substitute for thorough systems and AFM/POH knowledge when operating complex aircraft.